{"id":2468,"date":"2008-06-24T18:29:44","date_gmt":"2008-06-24T18:29:44","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pheasant1.wpenginepowered.com\/?p=2468"},"modified":"2025-04-04T19:09:25","modified_gmt":"2025-04-04T19:09:25","slug":"incubation-of-pheasant-eggs","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.pheasant.com\/about-us\/blog\/incubation-of-pheasant-eggs","title":{"rendered":"Incubation of Pheasant Eggs"},"content":{"rendered":"
Presented by:
\nVern L. Christensen
\nDepartment of Poultry Science
\nNorth Carolina State University<\/h5>\n

See full PowerPoint presentation here<\/a><\/p>\n

The final destination of the properly managed fertilized pheasant egg<\/a> is the incubator within the hatchery.\u00a0\u00a0Modern-day hatcheries generally have egg-setting capacities of thousands of eggs.\u00a0\u00a0Fertilized pheasant eggs have a 24-day developmental period so the scheduling of egg settings and removal of hatched chicks requires careful planning and monitoring of incubation conditions.\u00a0\u00a0Sanitation is imperative in commercial hatcheries as well because conditions for bacterial, mold and viral growth are ideal under incubation environments.\u00a0\u00a0In fact, human vaccine manufacture is often accomplished using fertilized poultry eggs.<\/p>\n

To accomplish successful incubation, an understanding of the basic principles of incubation is essential.\u00a0\u00a0Five principles of artificial incubation are essential for successful hatching of pheasant eggs.<\/strong>\u00a0\u00a0These factors are valid as well for the incubation of almost any avian species.\u00a0\u00a0The five principles are:\u00a0\u00a0Temperature, Humidity, Turning, Ventilation and Light and\/or Sound<\/strong>.\u00a0\u00a0Each of these environmental factors must be controlled to successfully develop a blastoderm into a hatchling.<\/p>\n

Explanation of each of the five principles:<\/p>\n

Temperature<\/em><\/strong><\/h3>\n

When discussing incubation temperature it is important to differentiate the type of incubating machine used.\u00a0\u00a0Incubators can be classified based on ventilation and how eggs are set.\u00a0\u00a0Ventilation can be Still-air or Forced-draft.\u00a0\u00a0Single-stage incubators are machines designed to incubate one setting of eggs through to hatching.\u00a0\u00a0Multi-stage incubators are engineered to contain eggs of multiple ages.\u00a0\u00a0Eggs become exothermic approximately midway between setting and hatching (approximately 12 days).\u00a0\u00a0Energy can be saved if endothermic (Eggs less than 12 days of development) are incubated with eggs older than 14 days.\u00a0\u00a0Heat from the older eggs is used to provide heat for the younger embryos.\u00a0\u00a0Temperature requirements differ for each type of machine.<\/p>\n

The physiological function of temperature in the developmental process is control of the rate at which the embryo develops.\u00a0\u00a0Furthermore, temperature is the most critical of the five principles of incubation.<\/p>\n

Still-air Machines.<\/em>\u00a0\u00a0It is recommended that the incubation temperature for still-air machines be 100.5\u2070F the first week of incubation, 101.5\u2070F the second week, 102.5\u2070F the third and 103\u2070F the fourth week (Insko and Martin, 1936).<\/p>\n

Reducing the temperature 2 to 3\u2070F and increasing humidity to a wet bulb temperature or 90\u2070F (70% RH) may help improve the survival of pheasant embryos.<\/p>\n

A suitable alternative may be simply maintaining a constant incubation temperature at 102\u2070F throughout the entire developmental period.<\/p>\n

Forced-draft Machines.<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0\u00a0Each manufacturer will have specific directions for their machine.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0It is generally recommended that the incubation temperature be set at 99.5\u2070F for the initial 21 days of the pheasant chick embryo incubation period.<\/p>\n

Critical Range for Incubation Temperature.<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0\u00a0Chick embryos have either a nonexistent or a very weak thermoregulatory ability.\u00a0\u00a0Their zone of thermoneutrality is very narrow as an embryo.\u00a0\u00a0Therefore, incubator temperatures must be controlled very carefully to avoid physiological aberrations and\/or death.\u00a0\u00a0The critical temperature for incubating pheasant eggs is between 96.0\u2070F and 103.0\u2070F.<\/strong>\u00a0\u00a0Outside of this range is the LD50 (Lethal dose for 50% of the embryos).\u00a0\u00a0It is important in operating incubators for pheasant eggs that the temperature of the machine never falls below 96.0\u2070F or increases greater than 103.0\u2070F for an extended period of time.\u00a0\u00a0Operating at these temperatures for short periods of time will not harm the embryo, but operation for extended periods of time may be fatal.<\/p>\n

Humidity<\/h3>\n

The physiological role of humidity in incubation is only partially understood.\u00a0\u00a0It is easy to see how dehydration may affect embryonic growth and survival because all life must develop in water.\u00a0\u00a0The role that overhydration plays in incubation and embryo survival is less easily understood.\u00a0\u00a0Experience has proved that a relative humidity (RH) of 54% inside the cabinet is deal for embryo growth and survival.\u00a0\u00a0However, incubator humidity must be increased during the final few days of development to prevent dehydration and adherence to the shell during the actual hatching process.\u00a0\u00a0If humidity is not increased during the final few hours of hatching, many embryos will stick to the shell because the residual albumen held in the albumen sac will act as glue if desiccated.<\/p>\n

Dehydration.<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0\u00a0At oviposition a pheasant egg is approximately 66% water.\u00a0\u00a0In order for optimal growth to occur during incubation, the relative amount of water in an egg must remain at approximately 66%.\u00a0\u00a0Water vapor is lost from an egg at incubation temperatures through tiny pores in the shell.\u00a0\u00a0Collectively, these pores account for less than 1% of the total surface area of the egg, but they play a very important role in embryo growth.\u00a0\u00a0As development proceeds\u00a0water vapor from the embryo diffuses<\/strong>\u00a0through these pores into the incubator environment<\/strong>.\u00a0\u00a0Diffusion of gases is dependent upon a gradient.\u00a0\u00a0Water vapor will flow toward a lesser concentration.\u00a0\u00a0The rate of flow can be controlled by the magnitude of the gradient (The ratio of the water vapor pressure inside the shell to the water vapor pressure outside the shell).\u00a0\u00a0In pheasant hatcheries we deal with water loss as a percentage of weight loss from the egg at the time of setting in the incubator until 21 days of development.\u00a0\u00a0The ideal percentage of weight (water) loss for pheasant eggs is 11.5 to 12% of the initial egg mass.<\/strong>\u00a0\u00a0This water loss has been shown to result in an embryo at hatching which is 66% water.\u00a0\u00a0Chicks hatched with 66% water are not dehydrated.<\/p>\n

Overhydration.<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0\u00a0It is more difficult to understand the physiology underlying the inability of an embryo to grow when there is too much water in an egg than when there is not enough.\u00a0\u00a0The lipids in yolk provide more than 90% of the energy for embryo growth.\u00a0\u00a0Lipid metabolism creates water as a by-product.\u00a0\u00a0If no water were lost from an egg, the relative water content of an egg would increase to greater than 66% during development because metabolic water formed during energy metabolism would remain inside the egg.\u00a0\u00a0It is thought that the embryo may drown metabolically.\u00a0\u00a0It could not drown in the usual sense of the word because the lung of the bird is the shell and its underlying chorioallantoic membrane.\u00a0\u00a0For optimal survival rates, water must be lost at a rate that maintains the relative water content of the egg at 66%.\u00a0\u00a0As stated previously, the ideal percentage weight loss for pheasant eggs to fulfill this requirement is 11.5 to 12% of the initial egg mass.<\/strong><\/p>\n

Suggestions for Controlling Incubator Humidity.<\/em>\u00a0\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n

Pheasant eggs are more sensitive to water loss than are chicken eggs.\u00a0\u00a01) 30 to 35 eggs should be marked with a soft-lead pencil and observed throughout an incubation cycle.\u00a0\u00a0The following table shows the values that should be seen at different incubation stages.<\/p>\n

Day of development\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Water lost (%)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Ideal loss (%)<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a06\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a02 to 3\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a02.5%<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a012\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a04.1 to 6\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a05.9<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a016\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a06.2 to 9\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a06.75<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a020\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a09.0 to 12\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a011.5<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n

2)\u00a0\u00a0Alternate means of monitoring egg weight loss is by observing the air cell of incubating eggs.\u00a0\u00a0Excessively large or small air cells indicate problems.\u00a0\u00a0This is most easily seen at external pipping.\u00a0\u00a0If the pipping lines are more than one-third of the egg, too much water was lost.\u00a0\u00a0If the pipping lines are less than one-third of the egg, too little water was lost.\u00a0\u00a03)\u00a0\u00a0As a general rule, incubate at 54% RH until 20 days, and then use 70% through hatching.<\/strong>\u00a0\u00a04)\u00a0\u00a0If additional humidity is needed, wet the incubator floor, place pans of water in the incubators, place burlap wicks in the pans already there.\u00a0\u00a0In general, one needs to increase the surface area available for evaporation.\u00a0\u00a05)\u00a0\u00a0To reduce the RH, increase the ventilation.<\/strong><\/p>\n

Ventilation<\/h3>\n

Proper atmospheric concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide are a subject of considerable debate.\u00a0\u00a0Basically, the fairest statement is that critical concentrations are unknown.\u00a0\u00a0However, it is known that pheasant embryos are sensitive to both too little and too much oxygen and carbon dioxide.<\/p>\n

Oxygen.<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0\u00a0The physiological role of oxygen in embryo development is growth.\u00a0\u00a0The greater the oxygen concentration, the better will be the growth of the embryo.<\/strong>\u00a0\u00a0This is in contrast to\u00a0temperature which controls the rate of growth<\/strong>. Based on limited research, there are some generalities that can be made about oxygen in the incubator.\u00a0\u00a0Normal atmospheric concentrations of oxygen are 20.9% of the environmental air.\u00a0\u00a0In scientific terms it makes more sense to discuss oxygen as a partial pressure because barometric pressure can vary from location to location.\u00a0\u00a0If we assume that 760 mm of mercury (mm Hg) is the standard condition, then normal oxygen partial pressure will be .209 X 760 = 159 mm Hg.\u00a0\u00a0We know that\u00a0oxygen toxicity occurs at partial pressure greater than 190 mmHg and less than 114 mm Hg.\u00a0\u00a0<\/strong>If we assume that most hatcheries operate at about 760 mm Hg then these values\u00a0correspond to 25% and 15% of the atmosphere.<\/strong><\/p>\n

Oxygen concentrations are maintained in incubators by fans and vents.\u00a0\u00a0The fans are controlled by thermostats rather than by an oxygen sensor.\u00a0\u00a0Oxygen sensors are expensive and unreliable under incubation conditions.\u00a0\u00a0Therefore, it necessitates that the hatchery manager controls the vent openings manually.\u00a0\u00a0The proper vent opening may need to be determined by trial and error within each hatchery.\u00a0\u00a0Portable oxygen sensors and generators are available and many hatcheries use them to monitor oxygen concentrations \u2013 especially during the actual hatching process.\u00a0\u00a0The vent openings can then be adjusted to optimize the oxygen concentrations based on actual atmospheric oxygen measurements.<\/p>\n

Carbon dioxide.\u00a0\u00a0<\/em><\/strong>We know less about proper carbon dioxide concentrations that we do about oxygen.\u00a0\u00a0Carbon dioxide is essential to the development of a pheasant embryo because normal development does not occur in the absence of carbon dioxide.\u00a0\u00a0We also know that carbon dioxide probably has upper and lower limits just as oxygen does.\u00a0\u00a0As mentioned above with oxygen, the concentrations of carbon dioxide are also expressed as percentages of the total atmosphere.\u00a0\u00a0If we are incubating at 760 mm Hg, then normal atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide is .0025 X 760 = 2 mm Hg.\u00a0\u00a0The lower toxic limit for carbon dioxide is about.4 mm Hg whereas the upper toxic limit for carbon dioxide is about 4 mm Hg.\u00a0\u00a0<\/strong>At high altitude where barometric pressure is less than 760 mm Hg, carbon dioxide concentrations may need to be greater to sustain embryonic life.\u00a0\u00a0The suggested values\u00a0correspond to .05% and .5% of the total atmosphere.<\/strong><\/p>\n

If carbon dioxide is totally absent from the atmosphere, then normal blood acid\/base balance is not attained before hatching and the egg pipping process is delayed.\u00a0\u00a0If too much carbon dioxide is found in the incubation environment, then the embryo may die immediately or the shell pipping process may be accelerated.<\/p>\n

Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Concentrations at Different Times during Incubation.\u00a0<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0Times of embryonic development are characterized by great sensitivity to carbon dioxide and oxygen whereas others are characterized by almost a totally lack of sensitivity.\u00a0\u00a0The most sensitive periods in the development of a turkey embryo are 1 to 6 days of incubation and 21 to 28 days of incubation.<\/p>\n

Suggestions for Controlling Respiratory Gases.\u00a0\u00a0<\/em><\/strong>1)\u00a0\u00a0At both critical times of incubation, less than 15% oxygen (114 mm Hg at 760 mm Hg of barometric pressure) is fatal.\u00a0\u00a0Similarly, at both stages 1.5% carbon dioxide (4 mm Hg at 760 mm Hg of barometric pressure) is detrimental.\u00a0\u00a02) At all other times of incubation, turkey embryos can tolerate less than 15% oxygen and up to 7% carbon dioxide.\u00a0\u00a03)\u00a0DO NOT OPEN THE INCUBATOR DOOR MORE THAN NECESSARY WHEN THE DEVELOPING EGGS ARE AT THE CRITICAL STAGES.\u00a0\u00a0<\/strong>4) Ventilation should be measured carefully when embryos are at the critical stages of development.\u00a0\u00a0Newer model incubators now have carbon dioxide and oxygen monitors on them.\u00a0\u00a05) Ventilation plays an important but undefined role at the final stages of incubation.\u00a0\u00a0This effect is probably best demonstrated by the following data depicting survival of embryos in eggs with drilled holes.<\/p>\n

Days of Incubation Hatchability (%)<\/strong><\/p>\n

13\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a089<\/p>\n

14\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a089.5<\/p>\n

15\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a090.4<\/p>\n

16\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a093.5<\/p>\n

17\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a087.6<\/p>\n

18\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a085.1<\/p>\n

19\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a084.9<\/p>\n

Turning<\/h3>\n

Funk (1934) was probably the first to note the beneficial effects of turning eggs during artificial incubation.\u00a0\u00a0Pheasant eggs are generally turned every three hours day and night.\u00a0\u00a0<\/strong>However, if the automatic turning equipment fails, manual turning at least five times a day is very satisfactory.\u00a0\u00a0Optimally, pheasant eggs should not remain in the same position for longer than 8 hours during the critical developmental time periods (1 to 9 days of incubation).\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u00a0Physiology of Egg Turning.\u00a0<\/em><\/strong>It was demonstrated many years ago that if eggs were not turned,\u00a0the embryo would actually adhere to the shell membranes.\u00a0\u00a0<\/strong>It is not known if the adherence kills the embryo but it certainly does not do it any good.\u00a0\u00a0It is also known that if eggs are not turned, the fluids from the albumen will penetrate the inner and outer membranes of the shell and\u00a0prevent the formation of chorioallantoic blood vessels\u00a0<\/strong>that serve as the lung of the developing embryo.\u00a0\u00a0One can easily visualize an unturned egg with an egg candling light be observing the lack of blood vessel development around the shell.\u00a0\u00a0A third suggested cause of death in unturned eggs is that\u00a0the nutrients in an egg become stratified\u00a0<\/strong>in the absence of turning.\u00a0\u00a0That would render nutrients unavailable to the embryos and possibly cause death.<\/p>\n

Frequency of Turning.\u00a0\u00a0<\/em><\/strong>Pheasant eggs need turning during only the first nine days of incubation.\u00a0\u00a0After that time, turning does not seem essential to embryonic survival.\u00a0\u00a0The minimum amount of turning is two times per day\u00a0<\/strong>whereas there\u00a0does not seem to be an upper limit to the number of times an egg can be turned before it affects embryonic survival.<\/strong><\/p>\n

Dimensions of Turning.\u00a0\u00a0<\/em><\/strong>Most eggs are set in the vertical position in pheasant egg incubators.\u00a0\u00a0How far must an egg be turned and in what planes does it need to be turned?\u00a0\u00a0Research indicates that\u00a0eggs turned between 30 and 60 degrees in a one-dimensional plane hatch best.\u00a0\u00a0Most commercial incubators turn eggs about 45 degrees in a one-dimensional plane.\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n

Light and Sound<\/h3>\n

The use of light and sound in incubation are relatively new developments.\u00a0\u00a0Because they are so new, there aren\u2019t many management guidelines available.\u00a0\u00a0Lauber (1961) was the first to observe effects of light in incubators.\u00a0\u00a0She was observing the effect of light on the formation of the embryonic eye and noted that the\u00a0eggs exposed to the light began hatching nearly 24 hours earlier\u00a0<\/strong>than those in total darkness.\u00a0\u00a0It is now a common observation that light accelerates embryonic development, but there have been no consistent reports on a beneficial effect on hatchability.\u00a0\u00a0Transferring incubating eggs from a dark incubator into a lighted incubator at 24 days of incubation resulted in accelerated hatching and an improvement in hatchability, but exposing incubating eggs to light for the entire incubation period did not.<\/p>\n

Sound has similar effects on hatching rates (Sandusky, 1994).\u00a0\u00a0The effects of\u00a0playing music had a synchronizing effect on hatching times.<\/strong>\u00a0\u00a0The hatchlings seemed to emerge from the shell very close to the same time.\u00a0\u00a0More research is needed to confirm this very preliminary report.<\/p>\n

Both light and sound may be factors that can be used in the future in our artificial incubation of pheasant eggs.\u00a0\u00a0However, currently most of our concern should be focused on the previously discussed factors of temperature, humidity, ventilation and turning.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Presented by: Vern L. 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